Knowledge according to Socrates is identical to something. Knowledge according to Socrates is identical. The hypothesis about
SUBJECT OF PHILOSOPHY
1. From Greek the word “philosophy” is translated as:
love of wisdom
2. For the first time he used the word “philosophy” and called himself a “philosopher”:
3. Determine the time of emergence of philosophy:
VII-VI centuries. BC.
4. The fundamentals of existence, problems of knowledge, the purpose of man and his position in the world are studied by:
philosophy
5. Worldview form of social consciousness, rationally substantiating the ultimate foundations of existence, including society and law:
philosophy
6. The worldview function of philosophy is that:
philosophy helps a person understand himself, his place in the world
7. Worldview is:
a set of views, assessments, emotions that characterize a person’s attitude to the world and to himself
8. What is the meaning of G. Hegel’s statement that “philosophy is an epoch captured by thought”?
The course of history depends on the direction of thinking of philosophers
9. The defining feature of a religious worldview is:
belief in supernatural, otherworldly forces that have the ability to influence the course of events in the world
11.What is characteristic of the epistemic line in philosophy?
viewing reality as constantly evolving
12. Ontology is:
the doctrine of existence, its fundamental principles
13. Epistemology is:
the doctrine of nature, the essence of knowledge
14. Anthropology is:
doctrine of man
15. Axiology is:
doctrine of values
16. Ethics is:
the doctrine of morality and moral values
17. Section of philosophy in which problems of knowledge are developed
Epistemology
18.According to Marxist philosophy, the essence of the main question of philosophy is:
relation of consciousness to matter
19. Idealism is characterized by the following statement:
consciousness is primary, matter does not exist independently of consciousness
20.Dualism is characterized by the following thesis:
matter and consciousness are two principles that exist independently of each other
21.Who owns this statement: “I claim that there are no things. We're just used to talking about things; in fact, there is only my thinking, there is only my “I” with its inherent sensations. The material world only seems to us, is it just a certain way of talking about our feelings”?
To the subjective idealist
22.What historical type of worldview are we talking about here: “This is a holistic worldview, in which various ideas are linked into a single figurative picture of the world, combining reality and fantasy, the natural and the supernatural, knowledge and faith, thought and emotions”?
23. Some Christian theologians claim that the whole world. The entire Universe was created by God in six days, and God himself is a disembodied intellect, an all-perfect Personality. What philosophical direction does this view of the world correspond to?
Objective idealism
24. A representative would agree with the statement: “Thinking is the same product of the activity of the brain as bile is a product of the activity of the liver”:
vulgar materialism
25. Agnosticism is:
doctrine that denies the knowability of the essence of the objective world
26. Agnosticism is:
direction in the theory of knowledge, which believes that adequate knowledge of the world is impossible
27. They deny the possibility of knowing the world:
agnostics
28. The direction of Western European philosophy, which denies the cognitive value of philosophy, the presence of its own, original subject:
positivism
PHILOSOPHY OF THE ANCIENT EAST
29. The law of retribution in Indian religion and religious philosophy, which determines the nature of the new birth of reincarnation:
30.Name of the founder of Buddhism, meaning awakened, enlightened:
31.Name of the founder of Buddhism
Sidhartha
32. The central concept of Buddhism and Jainism, meaning the highest state, the goal of human aspirations:
33. The concept of ancient Chinese philosophy, denoting the masculine, bright and active principle:
34. The concept of ancient Chinese philosophy, denoting the feminine, dark and passive principle:
35.The idea of a “noble husband” as an ideal person was developed by:
Confucius
36. What do the concepts of Brahman in Vedanta and apeiron in the philosophy of Anaximander mean:
Higher intelligence
37. In the philosophy of Heraclitus, the word Logos means world law, world order, to which everything that exists is subordinated. Which concept of Chinese philosophy has the same meaning:
38.What does the concept of “dharma” mean in traditional Indian philosophy:
An eternal moral law that prescribes from above for everyone a certain way of life.
39.Ancient Indian philosophical texts include
Upanishads
40.Ancient Chinese philosophical texts include
Tao Te Ching
41.In Indian philosophy - the total sum of committed actions and their consequences, which determines the nature of the new birth
42.Chinese philosopher, founder of Taoism
43.The golden rule of morality: “What you don’t wish for yourself, don’t do to others” was first formulated:
Confucius
PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT GREECE
44.Chronological framework for the development of ancient philosophy:
VI century BC – VI century AD
45.The basic principle of ancient philosophy was:
cosmocentrism
46.The main problem solved by the philosophers of the Milesian school:
problem from the beginning
47. Thesis belonging to the thinker Thales:
"Know Thyself"
48. Thesis belonging to the thinker Thales
"The beginning of all things is water"
49. Anaximenes took the first principle of all things
50.The statement: “Number is the essence and meaning of everything that is in the world” belongs to:
Pythagoras
51. Follower of Pythagoras, the first to draw the system of the world and place the Central Fire at the center of the universe
Parmenides
52. For the first time the concept of being was used in philosophy
Parmenides
53. Movement, any change is only an illusion of the sensory world, they argued:
54. Representatives of which philosophical school posed the problem of being, contrasted the world of feelings with the world of reason and argued that movement, any change is only an illusion of the sensory illusory world:
Eleatic
55.What do you think, the hypothetical dispute of which philosophers was depicted by A.S. Pushkin in the poem “Movement”?
Zeno and Heraclitus
56. An ancient philosopher who believed that you cannot enter the same river twice:
Heraclitus
57.Which of the ancient philosophers taught that everything develops, that the first cause of the world and its fundamental principle is fire, that you cannot enter the same river twice?
Heraclitus
58. The concept of “Logos” in the philosophical teachings of Heraclitus means:
Universal law, the action of which everything in the world is subject to
59. For the first time expressed the idea of the atomic structure of matter:
Democritus
60. The statement: “Man is the measure of all things” belongs to:
Protagoras
62.Knowledge according to Socrates is identical:
virtues
63.The essence of Socrates’ “ethical rationalism”:
virtue is the result of knowing what is good, while lack of virtue is the result of ignorance
64.Objective-idealistic philosophy was founded by:
Plato
65. In antiquity, the merit of the discovery of the supersensible world of ideas belongs to:
66. In Plato’s philosophy, how does the idea of a “horse” differ from a real, living, real horse? Please indicate the wrong answer.
The idea is immortal, eternal, the real horse is mortal
67. In Plato’s philosophy, the idea of a “horse” differs from a real, living horse in that:
the idea is material, the real horse is ideal
68. The statement that the soul before the birth of a person was in the world of ideas, therefore in the process of cognition it is able to remember them, belongs to:
69. The source of knowledge is the soul’s recollection of the world of ideas, believed:
70. Philosopher who considered logic the main tool of knowledge:
Aristotle
71. Philosopher, student of Plato:
Aristotle
Aristotle
73.According to Aristotle, the human soul does not include
Mineral Soul
74.The essence of the ethical teaching of Epicurus is that:
you need to enjoy life
75.Roman poet, follower of Epicurus, author of the poem “On the Nature of Things”
76.The statement: “It’s not what happens to us that matters, but how we relate to it” corresponds to the worldview:
77.Roman philosopher, teacher of Nero, author of “Letters to Lucillius”, representative of Stoicism
78. The philosopher who lived in a barrel considered himself a “citizen of the world” and called for poverty and ignorance
Diogenes of Sinope
MEDIEVALISM
79.A characteristic feature of medieval philosophy is:
theocentrism
80.Which of the following features is not characteristic of medieval philosophical thought?
81. Theocentrism is a worldview position based on the idea of primacy:
82. Philosophy in the Middle Ages occupied a subordinate position in relation to:
theology
83. The set of religious doctrines and teachings about the essence and action of God:
theology
84.Works of early Christian literature not included in the biblical canon, i.e. recognized by the official church as “false”
Apocrypha
85.Eschatology is
86. Savior, deliverer from troubles, anointed of God
87. Restriction or suppression of sensual desires, voluntary enduring of physical pain, loneliness:
asceticism
88. The ideological principle, according to which the world was created by God out of nothing, is called:
Creationism
89. Teaching about the salvation of the soul
Soteriology
90. The principle according to which God determines the entire course of history and the fate of each person
Creationism
91.The main task of Christian apologists was:
In justifying the advantages of Christianity over paganism
92.The name of the period of creative ministry of the “Church Fathers” ( III - VIII centuries) who laid the foundations of Christian philosophy and theology; in their In the works of confrontation-dialogue with Greco-Roman philosophy, the formation of a system of Christian dogma takes place:
patristics
93. Outstanding representative of patristics, author of the books “Confession”, “About the City of God”
Augustine
94. “Six Days” is a book that set out:
Christian ontology and cosmogony
95.Scholasticism is:
a type of philosophizing characterized by speculativeness and the primacy of logical-epistemological problems
96. Features such as speculativeness, interest in formal-logical problems, subordination to theology are inherent in:
scholasticism
97. Representative of medieval philosophy:
Thomas Aquinas
98. Representative of medieval Western European philosophy:
F. Aquinas
99.The art of interpretation of sacred texts, developed in the Middle Ages
Exegesis
100. The problem of proving the existence of God was one of the central ones for
Thomas Aquinas
RENAISSANCE PHILOSOPHY
101.The era of restoration of the ideals of antiquity in Europe:
Renaissance
102.The most important feature of the philosophical thought and culture of the Renaissance is:
anthropocentrism
103.A characteristic feature of Renaissance philosophy is:
anthropocentrism
104. In what city was the Platonic Academy revived in the 15th century?
Florence
105. Type of worldview, according to which man is the center and highest goal of the universe:
anthropocentrism
106. The main object of study, the measure of things and relationships in the Renaissance:
107.The secular worldview position of the Renaissance, opposed to scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church:
humanism
108. The opposition of an individual to society is typical for:
individualism
109.The type of worldview characteristic of the Renaissance, which is based on the opposition of the individual to society:
111.Representative of Renaissance philosophy:
112. The propositions about the infinity of the Universe in time and space, about the identity of God and nature were substantiated by:
Petrarch
114. Renaissance philosophy is characterized by
nostalgia for ancient culture
115. The doctrine developed during the Renaissance, and asserting the identity of God and nature, that “nature is God in things”
Pantheism
EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHY 17-18 centuries.
116. Liberation from church influence
Secularization
117.Philosophical direction that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior
Rationalism
118.The basic claim of rationalism is that
The mind plays a priority role in human cognitive activity
119.Features of rationalism XVII V. determined
Mathematics
120.French philosopher, also the creator of algebra and analytical geometry
R. Descartes
121.Dualistic philosophy is characteristic of
R. Descartes
122. On the question of substance, Rene Descartes adhered to
Dualism
123. The statement: “I think, therefore I exist” was expressed by
R. Descartes
124.What does the original thesis of Descartes’ philosophy mean, which in Latin sounds like “ cogito ergo sum »?
if I think, therefore I exist
125. The idea “never accept as true something that I do not clearly know to be true” belongs to:
R.Descartes
126. The main statement of empiricism
All human knowledge is based on experience
127.The direction that considers sensory experience to be the only source of our knowledge about the world
Sensationalism
129. The main method of scientific knowledge, according to F. Bacon, should be
Induction
130. F. Bacon’s division of experiments into “fruitful” and “luminous” corresponds to the division of knowledge into:
Sensual and rational
131.According to Francis Bacon, any knowledge must:
rely on experience and move from the individual to the general
132. Philosopher who believed that a child’s mind is like a blank slate tabula rasa
133. “War of all against all” is a natural state, he believed
134. Adhered to the theory of “social contract”
135. Philosopher who took the so-called “monads” as the basis of existence
G. Leibniz
136. Simple indivisible substance according to Leibniz
137.A representative of subjective idealism is:
J. Berkeley
138. The central philosophical problem of D. Hume
Cognition
139. The central problem in the philosophy of the French Enlightenment
Human
140.The main idea of the philosophy of the French Enlightenment
The priority of reason as the highest authority in solving problems of human society
141. One of the most important ideas of French philosophy of the Enlightenment cannot be considered
The idea of equality of all people
142.The essence of deism is
Reducing the role of God to the creation of matter and the first impulse
143. Representative of the philosophy of the French Enlightenment
J.-J. Rousseau
144. “Man was born to be free, and yet everywhere he is in chains,” asserted
J.-J. Rousseau
145.The cause of inequality in human society is J.-J. Rousseau believed
Own
146.French philosopher, supporter of sensationalism
147.The center of the European Enlightenment in the mid-18th century was
148.The idea of the rule of law includes the provision of
Separation of powers
149.French philosopher who believed in the omnipotence of education and argued that people from birth have equal abilities
GERMAN CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY
150.Chronological framework of German classical philosophy
152.The most important philosophical work of Immanuel Kant
"Critique of Practical Reason"
153.The subject of theoretical philosophy according to I. Kant should be research:
laws of reason and its boundaries
154.According to I. Kant, in order for knowledge to be reliable, it must:
to be universal and necessary
155. I. Kant believes that space and time:
there are innate, pre-experimental forms of sensuality
156. In the philosophy of I. Kant, a “thing in itself” is
That which causes sensations in us, but cannot itself be known
157. In the philosophy of I. Kant, antinomies take place where, with the help of human reason, they try to draw conclusions about:
the world of “things in themselves”
you would like them to act towards you
159. The statement: “Act in such a way that the maxim of your will can at the same time become the principle of universal legislation” belongs to
160. According to I. Kant, for the formation of a person as a moral being, it is of fundamental importance
Moral duty
G.W.F.Hegel
162. The philosophy of G. Hegel is characterized by:
panlogism
163. Hegel’s theory of development, which is based on the unity and struggle of opposites, is called:
dialectics
164.Reality, which forms the basis of the world, according to Hegel:
Absolute idea
165. Representative of German classical philosophy:
L. Feuerbach
166. Which of the following thinkers is not a representative of German classical philosophy?
167.The representative of materialism is
L. Feuerbach
168. Divided reality into the “world of things in themselves” and the “world of phenomena”
169.Not a characteristic feature of German classical philosophy
Denial of transcendental, divine existence
170. A thinker who lived his entire life in Koenigsberg and taught at the university there
171.According to Hegel, the true engine of world history is
World Spirit
WESTERN EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHY 19-20 centuries.
172.Philosophical direction that denies or limits the role of reason in knowledge, highlighting will, contemplation, feeling, intuition
Irrationalism
173.Philosophical direction, which claims that the mind only floats on the surface of things, while the essence of the world is revealed to us through intuition, experience, understanding
Philosophy of life
174. Representatives of the “philosophy of life” include
175. Considered will as the main principle of life and knowledge
A. Schopenhauer
176.Arthur Schopenhauer considered substance, the fundamental principle of the world
The will to live
177. The central concept of A. Bergson’s philosophical teaching is the vital impulse (é lan vital ). Its knowledge is possible with the help of:
Friedrich Nietzsche
179. Founder of positivism
Auguste Comte
Marxism
Pragmatism
182.Irrationalistic direction in philosophy XX century
Existentialism
183.The term “existentialism” comes from the French word, which translated into Russian means
Existence
184.The form of being that is the focus of existentialism
Individual human existence
185. The provisions about the absolute freedom of man, his abandonment and loneliness, about the borderline situation that can reveal the true essence of man, were substantiated in philosophy
Existentialism
186.The direction of philosophy in which man is viewed as a self-determining, self-creating being
Existentialism
187. The existentialist view of man corresponds to the statement that
Man is doomed to be free and bear absolute responsibility for his actions.
RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY
188. The most important features of Russian philosophy cannot be attributed
Pre-systematic, pre-logical character
189. One of the cross-cutting ideas of Russian philosophy is the idea of apokatastasis, the essence of which is
The salvation of all people without exception: both righteous and sinners
190.The characteristic features of Russian philosophy include:
Empiricism
191. Supreme god in Slavic mythology, creator of the Universe, manager of rain and thunderstorms, patron of family and home
192.Old Russian thought is characterized by:
Revaluation of external material existence
193.The pre-philosophy of Kievan Rus is characterized by:
mysticism
194.The date of adoption of Orthodoxy in Rus' is considered
195. The city in which, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich was baptized
196. Kievan Rus took over the “cultural baton” from:
Golden Horde
197.The double-headed eagle was first adopted as the state symbol of Russia
Ivan III in the 15th century
198.The genre of social utopia in ancient Russian literature includes
"A Word on Law and Grace"
199. Sergius of Radonezh was a contemporary
Battle of Kulikovo
200.The famous Russian icon painter is:
Feofan the Greek
"Trinity"
202. “The Sermon on Law and Grace” was written by
203. First substantiated the ideology “Moscow – the Third Rome”
204.The initiator of the correction of church books, which was the reason for the schism, was:
Patriarch Nikon
205.The founder of Russian book printing is:
I. Fedorov
206.Spiritual leader of non-possessors
Neil Sorsky
207. They opposed the ownership of land by monasteries; they believed that the accumulation of wealth was contrary to monastic vows
non-acquisitive
208.Code of the feudal way of life, which prescribed how to build a family and run a household, created in Rus' in the 16th century
"Domostroy"
209. Archpriest Avvakum was a spiritual leader
schismatics
210. In “Vertograd the Multicolored” Simeon of Polotsk likens the world
211.One of the first supporters of the idea of Pan-Slavism (unification of all Slavs)
Yuri Krizhanich
212. Companion of Peter the Great, Archbishop of Novgorod, author of the “Spiritual Regulations”
Feofan Prokopovich
213.The Russian Academy of Sciences was founded in
214. A supporter of deistic materialism in Russian philosophy was
M.V. Lomonosov
215.When Moscow University was opened, its three faculties did not include:
physical
216. Freemasonry was brought to Russia from:
217.One of the central ideas of Freemasonry includes:
Improving a person through personal and collective self-knowledge
218.According to contemporaries, “he created in us a love of science and a desire to read”
N.I. Novikov
219. Nicknamed “Russian Socrates”
G.S. frying pan
220.According to G.S. Skovoroda, all reality falls into three worlds, of which this is not the case:
society
221.The work “About Man, His Mortality and Immortality,” which is one of the first philosophical and anthropological works in the history of Russian thought, was written
A.N. Radishchev
222.The question of the role and place of Russia in the history of mankind was raised in the “Philosophical Letters”:
P. Chaadaev
223.The first “Philosophical Letter” was published in the magazine
Telescope
224. The main ideas of the “Philosophical Letters” cannot be attributed
Following the Christian commandments as the only path to salvation, to the Kingdom of Heaven
225. Was declared Emperor Nicholas I crazy for his philosophical views
P.Ya. Chaadaev
226.Who owns the following pessimistic lines: “Alone in the world, we gave nothing to the world, took nothing from the world, we did not contribute in any way to the forward movement of the human mind, and we distorted everything that we got from this movement. Since the very first moments of our social existence, nothing suitable for the common good of people has come from us, not a single useful thought has sprouted in the barren soil of our homeland, not a single great truth has been brought forward from our midst”?
P.Ya. Chaadaev
227.The main idea of Westernism is
Russia must develop along the European path
228.Spiritual leader of Westerners
A.I. Herzen
229.The ideology of the party is closest to the views of the “Westerners”
Union of Right Forces
230. The central idea of philosophy I.V. Kireevsky
Integrity of spiritual life
231.The ideological head of the Slavophiles was
A.S. Khomyakov
232.The representative of Slavophilism was
I.S. Kireevsky
233.The belief that the salvation of the West lies in the adoption of Orthodoxy is closest to the worldview:
Slavophiles
234. Belief in the moral purity of the Russian peasantry is characteristic of:
Slavophiles
The term “conciliarity” in Slavophil philosophy means
Free unity of people in Christ
A true hymn to freedom can be recognized
“The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor” by F.M. Dostoevsky
The words “beauty will save the world” belong to
F.M. Dostoevsky
The meaning of Dostoevsky's parable about the “tear of a child” from the novel “The Brothers Karamazov” is that
World harmony is not worth even one human life
F.M. Dostoevsky
Philosophical doctrine founded by Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy
Ethics of nonviolence
The main moral rule from the point of view of L.N. Tolstoy
Don't resist evil
The country where Vladimir Solovyov for the third time met with the vision of Sophia as an image of eternal femininity and the wisdom of God
Vladimir Solovyov
244.Concept…. characteristic of Vl. S. Solovyova.
Unity
One of the main ideas of the philosophy of unity
Inadmissibility of any forms of violence in public and state life
The highest, most perfect form of love, according to V.S. Solovyov, is
Love between a man and a woman
Domestic thinker who first created a comprehensive philosophical system based on Christian humanism
V.S. Soloviev
Russian thinker who, in his work “Names,” argued that there is a deep connection between a name and its bearer
P.A. Florensky
One of the main works of S.N. Bulgakov
"Non-evening light"
Representative of Russian Marxism
G.V. Plekhanov
IN AND. Lenin developed the doctrine of Russia as
The weak link in the chain of imperialism
The founder of Russian cosmism is considered
Nikolay Fedorov
253. Representatives of “Russian cosmism” are:
K. Tsiolkovsky, V. Vernadsky
According to N.F. Fedorov, the highest moral duty of earthlings, the central task of all people is to
Eliminating suffering on earth
Synthesis of philosophical and scientific teachings, united by the idea of the relationship between man and nature, humanity and the Universe
One of the basic rules of “cosmic ethics” by K.E. Tsiolkovsky
Kill the sufferer
The basic concept of epistemology V.I. Vernadsky
Empirical generalization
The noosphere is
Sphere of the Mind
Founder of space ecology and heliobiology
A.L. Chizhevsky
Russian philosopher, who wrote in the book “Self-Knowledge”: “The originality of my philosophical type lies primarily in the fact that I laid the foundation of philosophy not being, but freedom.”
Nikolay Berdyaev
The Russian thinker... in his work “Self-Knowledge” stated that he laid the foundation of philosophy not on being, but on freedom.
ON THE. Berdyaev
The reason, the primary source of evil in the world according to N.A. Berdyaev
Government
The dualism of spirit and matter, God and nature is characteristic of philosophy
ON THE. Berdyaev
According to L. Shestov, a person can achieve the impossible only thanks to
Faith in God
According to L. Shestov, the main enemies of man in the “struggle for the impossible” are
Reason and Morality
ONTOLOGY
266. The basis of being, existing in itself independently of anything else,
Substance
267. The equality of the material and spiritual principles of existence proclaims
268. The existence of many initial foundations and principles of being is affirmed
Pluralism
269. Statement corresponding to the metaphysical understanding of matter
Matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible
270.The atomic hypothesis of the structure of matter was first put forward by:
Democritus
271.Matter is the primary source of being, states
Materialism
273.In Marxism, matter is interpreted as
Substance
274.Which of the following does not apply to the attributes of matter?
Stability
275. Ideal phenomena include
276. An integral essential property of a thing, phenomenon, object is called
Attribute
277. Method of existence of matter
Movement
278. Does not apply to the attributes of matter
279. The highest form of motion of matter is
Social movement
280.The essence of the cosmogonic hypothesis of the “Big Bang” is the assumption that
The universe came into being as a result of the explosion of a microscopic particle
281. The sequence of states reflects the category
282. Form of existence of matter, expressing its extension, structure, coexistence and interaction of elements in all material systems
Space
Defended the substantial concept of space and time
The essence of the relational concept of space and time is that
Space and time depend on material processes
Which concept of time does not allow the possibility of creating a “time machine”?
Dynamic
The most important specific property of biological time
Anthropicity
The most important specific property of biological space
Uniformity
The totality of natural conditions for the existence of man and society
Which of the following pairs of adjectives is not used in the philosophical analysis of nature?
pristine and man-made
Which of the named scientists-philosophers first established that solar activity affects people’s well-being?
Chizhevsky
PHILOSOPHY OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Reflection is (choose the most complete and accurate definition)
The property of matter to imprint the characteristics of objects affecting it
Sensations, perceptions, concepts, thinking are included in the structure:
consciousness
Reflection is:
reflection of a person about himself
The most complex form of reflection is
Consciousness
The ability of living organisms to navigate the external world and manage their activities
Consciousness
The thinker whose name is usually associated with the discovery of the sphere of the unconscious in the human psyche
Method developed by S. Freud
Psychoanalysis
Does not belong to the main methods of studying the unconscious in psychoanalysis
Belief Analysis
In the personality structure, S. Freud identifies
It, Super-I, I
300. One of the authorities that Sigmund Freud identified in the structure of personality
301. Sigmund Freud identified three levels in the structure of the mental apparatus. Among the authorities listed below, indicate the extra one, i.e. one that Freud did not single out.
In Freud's psychoanalysis it refers to:
sphere of the unconscious
A dream according to S. Freud is:
symbolic
A thinker who believed that man is driven primarily by sexual instincts
According to Carl Rogers, the self-concept consists of four main elements. Which of the following is not one of them?
I am a mirror
EPISTEMOLOGY
306. Epistemology considers
Limits and possibilities of human knowledge
307. Reliable knowledge about the world is impossible, says
Skepticism
308. Carrier of deliberate, purposeful activity
309.The cognitive attitude consists of three main aspects (elements). Indicate which of the indicated sides is the odd one here?
The purpose of knowledge
310.Does not belong to the types of means of cognition
Technical
311. Absoluteness, relativity, specificity, objectivity are the main properties
Spaces
312. Consistency refers to the next scientific criterion
Logical
313.If the empirical consequences predicted by theory are not found in practice, then they talk about
Approbation of knowledge
314.It is impossible to falsify:
existence of God
315. The hypothesis about:
existence of life on Mars
316.Coherence is
Self-consistency of knowledge
317. Heuristic refers to
Probabilistic criteria of scientific character
318.Knowledge corresponding to reality, adequately reflecting reality
319.Criterion of truth in Marxist philosophy
Practice
320.According to the pragmatic concept of truth, truth is
What is useful, what helps us solve problems successfully
321.The ability to comprehend truth by directly observing it without resorting to logical arguments
Intuition
322. In the modern theory of knowledge, the rethinking of the knowing subject follows the path
Abstractions from a person’s personal qualities
DIALECTICS
323.Dialectics is
The doctrine of development and universal interconnections
324.Philosophical doctrine of the development of being and knowledge, based on the resolution of contradictions
Dialectics
325.Name the philosopher who is considered the founder of ancient dialectics
Heraclitus
326. Hegel’s theory of development, which is based on the unity and struggle of opposites
Dialectics
327.Dialectical materialism - doctrine
Marxism
328.Dialectics differs from metaphysics
Understanding development
329.Metaphysics is
The view according to which the world or a separate part of it is considered unchanging, qualitatively constant
330. The most general fundamental concepts
331. Philosophical principle stating that all phenomena are connected to each other by causal connections and condition each other
The principle of unity and struggle of opposites
332.An essential, necessary, repeating, stable connection between phenomena is called
333. First formulated the laws of dialectics
G.V.F. Hegel
334. One of the basic principles of dialectics
Development principle
335.Not a law of dialectics
The Law of the Intertwining of Causes and Effects
336. Dialectical source of self-movement and development of nature, society and knowledge
Contradiction
337.The key point of the dialectical concept is the principle
Controversies
338. The law of dialectics, answering the question about the source of development
The law of unity and struggle of opposites
339. The law of dialectics, revealing the source of self-motion and development of the objective world and knowledge,
Unity and struggle of opposites
340. The law of dialectics, revealing the most general mechanism of development
Transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones
341. The law of dialectics, characterizing the direction, form and result of the development process
Negations of negations
Development
343. The totality of essential necessary properties of a thing constitute it:
Quality
344. The internal content of an object in the unity of all its properties and relationships is expressed by the category
Entities
345.Theory of self-organization of complex systems
Synergetics
NATURE OF SCIENCE, FORMS AND METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
346.Theory scientific cognition is called
Epistemology
347. Which of the following is not one of the main features of scientific knowledge?
irrefutability
348.According to its functional purpose and research purposes, knowledge is divided into
Fundamental and applied
349. One of the founders of the philosophy of technology
P. Engelmeyer
350.The Greek word "techne" originally meant
art, craftsmanship
351. Sensory cognition differs from rational cognition in that
The first is based on sensations, the second - on reason.
352. The original, simplest form of sensory knowledge
Feeling
353.Form of rational knowledge:
354. Thought that identifies and generalizes objects based on an indication of their essential and necessary properties
355.A statement in which something is affirmed or denied
Refutation
356. A form of thinking that reflects the presence of a connection between an object and its attribute, between objects, as well as the fact of the existence of an object
Judgment
357.Form of empirical knowledge
Hypothesis
358. Statement based on the combination of many related facts
Empirical generalization
359. Scientific assumption, assumption that needs additional justification
Hypothesis
360. The highest form of organization of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of the patterns and essential connections of a certain area of reality
361.The most important functions of scientific theory include
Systematizing
362.Scientific hypothesis refers to
Conceptual means of cognition
363. This definition: “The study of an object under controlled or artificially created conditions” refers to:
experiment
364. Intentional, purposeful perception of an object, phenomenon in order to study its properties, characteristics of its course and behavior
Observation
365. Study of an object in controlled or artificially created conditions
Experiment
366. Making a general conclusion based on generalization of particular premises
Induction
367.Logical deduction of particular consequences from the general position
Induction
368. The process of transition from general premises to conclusions about particular cases
Deduction
369. Mental or real decomposition of an object into its component elements
370. The procedure for mentally dividing the whole into parts
371.Combining the elements of the object being studied, highlighted in the analysis, into a single whole
372.Method not used in scientific and technical knowledge
Hermeneutic
373.The approximate calculation method is most widely used in
Mathematical Sciences
374.Identification of cause-and-effect relationships, subsuming individual phenomena under a general law is characteristic of
Explanations
375.According to T. Kuhn, “a scientific achievement recognized by all, which over a period of time provides the scientific community with a model for posing problems and solving them”
Paradigm
377.For the first time he defined man as a “social animal” ( zoon politikon )
Aristotle
378. The thought: “Man is the measure of all things” belongs
Protagoras
379. “This is social in nature, relatively stable and occurring throughout life, a psychological formation that represents a system of socially significant human traits.”
Personality
380.Personality is
Since the concept of “personality” is inseparable from the concept of “society” - every person is a potential personality
381.Personality is:
one is not born as a person, one becomes a person
382.Personality is:
product of social relations
383. A set of unique traits that distinguish a given individual from all others
Individuality
384. The highest ability of the subject, which directs the activity of the mind
385.Individual consciousness is
Reflection of the individual existence of a specific person
386. The priority of individuals over the social whole is affirmed
Individualism
387. The priority of the interests of society over the interests of the individual is characteristic of
Collectivism
388. The essence of the problem of the biological and social in man lies in the question
On the interaction and correlation of genes and upbringing
389. A negative attitude towards earthly life, viewing it as a continuous series of sufferings is characteristic of
Buddhism
390.For which of the following thinkers was the problem of the meaning of life not central?
I. Lakatos
391.The problem of the meaning of life was central to philosophy
V. Frankl
392.Who owns the following statements: “There is meaning for everyone and for everyone there is its own special meaning”, “Meaning cannot be created artificially, it can only be found”, “Our conscience guides us in the search for meaning”?
V. Frankl
393.Who do you think the following lines may belong to: “Any attempt to once again raise the spirit of the people in the concentration camp assumed that we would be able to direct them to some goal in the future. The one who could no longer believe in the future, in his own future, was lost. Along with the future, he also lost his spiritual core, broke internally and degraded both physically and mentally... However, the courage to live or, accordingly, fatigue from life turned out to depend each time solely on whether a person had faith in the meaning of life, his life. The motto of all psychotherapeutic work in a concentration camp could be the words of Nietzsche: “Whoever has For what live, can endure almost anything How »?
V. Frankl
394.What type of love does this description refer to: “This is a tender and soft feeling, selfless love-self-giving, embodied in the love of a mother for her child or in Christian love for her neighbor”?
395.Who do you think the following statement belongs to: “The idea of romantic love, according to which only one person in the world can be the object of true love and that the main task is to find this particular person, is erroneous. It is also not true that love for him, even if you are lucky enough to meet such a person, will result in a rejection of love for others. Love, which can be experienced in relation to only one person, this very fact shows that this is not love, but a symbiotic relationship.”
E. Fromm
396. Hedonistic love is a game that is not distinguished by the depth of feelings and manifests itself in the forms of flirting, coquetry, etc. (in ancient Greek culture)
397.The ethical meaning of the problem of euthanasia lies in the question
Does a person have the right to commit suicide?
398. “Everything in the world is predetermined, man is absolutely not free,” representatives say:
fatalism
399.According to… “everything in the world is predetermined, man is absolutely unfree”
Fatalism
400.The most ancient human ancestor (according to modern science)
Australopithecus
401.According to modern science Homo sapiens appeared on earth
100-150 thousand years ago
402.According to modern science, Australopithecus did not have
Articulate speech
403. Anthropoids are
Great apes
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
404.The philosophical direction has absolutized the laws of mechanics in relation to social philosophy:
French materialism of the 18th century
405.Philosophical direction that absolutizes the laws of mechanics in relation to social philosophy
French materialism of the 18th century
406.Founder of sociology as a positive science
407.Karl Marx's main work:
"Capital"
408. Identified socio-economic class as the main element of the social structure of society
409. The concept of socio-economic formation belongs to
Marxism
410. Socio-economic formation is
A society with its inherent economic basis and a political-legal superstructure rising above it
411.There are... socio-economic formations
412.According to the sociology of Marxism, the main driving force for the development of society is
Class struggle
413. Philosopher who understood social progress as the development and change of socio-economic formations
414. Determining relationships between people, in Marxist philosophy
Production
415. A class capable of reorganizing society, according to K. Marx
Proletariat
416.In Marxism, the main factor in the development of society is considered
Method of production of material goods
417.Does not apply to the main types of social production:
Production of spiritual values
418.Eschatology is:
The doctrine of the ultimate destinies of the world and man
419.According to G. Hegel, the true engine of history
World Spirit
420.The essence of naturalism as an approach to explaining social life lies in the proposition that:
Social life depends significantly on natural factors
421.Factor which, according to social Darwinism, is the main driving force in the development of society
Class struggle
422. Anthroposociogenesis is
The process of formation of a planetary civilization on the basis of reason
423.According to Marxism, the main factor of anthropogenesis is
424. Gradual changes in society and nature
Evolution
425.Movement in the direction from more perfect to less perfect
426. Social progress is
The progressive movement of society from simple forms to more complex ones
427.Deep qualitative changes in the development of any phenomena of nature, society or knowledge, occurring in a relatively short period of time
Movement
427.There are five main types of social communities. Please note which of the six types of communities listed below is incorrectly named here?
State
428. Social consciousness is
The sum of many individual consciousnesses
429.Which of the following is not a form of social consciousness?
430.What is produced within the spiritual sphere of society? Give the most complete and accurate answer.
Information and spiritual meanings
431.Ideology is
The totality of individual consciousnesses
432.Ideology refers to
Social sphere
433. The totality of public feelings, emotions, moods
Social consciousness
434. Does not relate to the most important dimensions of spirituality
Pluralism
435.Interest is
Specific, conscious need
436. Interest in painting is a concretization
Aesthetic needs
437. The phenomenon to which this definition refers: “The totality of material and spiritual values, as well as methods of their creation, transmission from one generation to another”
culture
438.The most important functions of culture cannot be considered
Adaptive (protective) function
439.Not a problem studied by the philosophy of history
The problem of the structure (structure) of society
440.The formational approach to the problem of the historical development of society states that:
World history is one, each society successively goes through a number of stages in its development, the same for all societies
441.I adhered to a formational approach to the analysis of social development
A. Toynbee
442.There is no single history of humanity, there is only the history of local civilizations according to:
civilizational approach
443.According to... the approach, there is no single history of mankind, there is only the history of local cultures
Cultural
444.According to Spengler, civilization is
Synonym for spiritual culture
445.Problems of war and peace, demographic and environmental in the modern world, are called ... problems.
Global
446.Global problems are
Problems on the solution of which the survival of all humanity depends
447.Which of the following problems is not a global one?
The problem of combating international terrorism
448.Growing interdependence of different regions of the world
Globalization
449.In modern Russia
Mortality significantly exceeds birth rate
1. Philosophy, the range of its problems and its role in society. Historical types of worldview - 28
2. Philosophy of the Ancient East. - 10
3. Ancient philosophy. - 33
4. Philosophy of the Middle Ages – 20
5. Philosophy of the Renaissance. - 12
6. Philosophy of New Time and Enlightenment. - thirty
7. German classical philosophy. - 18
8. Modern Western philosophy. - 16
9. Stages of development and characteristic features of Russian philosophy. - 78
10. Philosophical understanding of the world. Ontology. - 25
11. Philosophy of consciousness (psychoanalysis). - 15
12. Cognition as a subject of philosophical analysis. - 17
13. Dialectics.- 22
14. Science, methods and forms of scientific knowledge. - thirty
15. Philosophy about the essence and purpose of man. Anthropology. - 28
16. Social philosophy - 47
Total questions : 429 questions.
Sources: A.A. Radugin “Philosophy”, (in pieces) P.V. Alekseev, A.V. Panin "Philosophy". Prospekt Publishing House, Moscow University Publishing House 2005 Series “Scientific Biographies”. V.S. Nersesyants “Socrates”. Publishing house "Science", Moscow 1977;
1) Socrates' ethics was rationalistic. The only justification (motive) for knowledge was the desire for good. Socrates was convinced that people never do evil deliberately; salvation from involuntary evil is in knowledge of the truth, which is good. The laws of good behavior are embedded in the very soul of man. Their knowledge is a natural condition for achieving good. By exploring the mechanisms of one’s own evil and good behavior, discovering goodness at the foundation of one’s own soul, a person gets rid of mistakes (ignorance) and is truly virtuous. So, knowledge, according to Socrates, is a sufficient condition for morality. A person who knows the truth (good) will not be able to act contrary to it.
The doctrine of virtues. Basic virtues, according to Socrates:
· justice– knowledge of how to fulfill human and divine laws;
· courage– knowledge of how to overcome fear;
· moderation- knowledge of how to curb and limit your passions.
The general meaning of Socrates' philosophy.
Socrates' general idea could be formulated as follows: Truth exists. She is the true reality and the goal of knowledge. Its non-obvious status obliges a person to explore it for the sake of true implementation in his own life.
Socrates:
· consolidated the turn of ancient Greek philosophy from space exploration (nature) to anthropology, ethics and epistemology;
· set the task of studying the general and developed a (rational-dialectical) method for deriving concepts that will become the main semantic units of classical rational philosophizing;
· connected epistemology and ethics in the doctrine of innate knowledge of truth as the natural basis of morality (ethical rationalism).
· In general, for the first time he discovered and demonstrated the reflexive (self-exploring, critical) nature of philosophical knowledge.
Socrates' ethics can be reduced to three main theses:
· a) good is identical to pleasures, happiness;
· b) virtue is identical to knowledge;
· c) a person only knows that he knows nothing.
Each of us has two principles that control us and lead us; we follow them wherever they lead:
- one of them is innate, this is the attraction to pleasure,
- the other is the opinion we have acquired regarding the moral good and the desire for it.
- Socratic ethics is ethics of individual personal responsibility. It expresses that stage of personal development when an individual elevates himself to the level of a subject of morally responsible behavior. The individual takes upon himself the burden of responsibility and guilt for his human development.
DEFINITELY, IN HER OPINION, BUT THE EXPLANATION IS LONG (I don’t envy whoever gets it).
2) The most famous statement Protagoras of the surviving fragments is the following : “Man is the measure of all things that exist as they exist, and non-existent as they do not exist.” Protagoras' thesis that "man is the measure of all things" can be interpreted as an epistemological position, namely : things do not reveal themselves to people as they are in themselves. Only certain aspects or properties of things always appear before a person. Let's try to clarify this point with the help of an example. A hammer in the hands of a carpenter is a tool for hammering nails. It can be comfortable or uncomfortable, heavy or light. For a physicist, a hammer as an object of study appears as a physical object that is not convenient or inconvenient, but which has one or another molecular structure, one or another physical properties, such as weight, strength, etc. For a seller, a hammer on a store shelf is a product that has a certain value and profit that its sale will bring. This product is easy, or maybe difficult, to sell and store. This is our interpretation.
If this is what Protagoras meant, then his thesis should be understood to mean that man is the measure of all things insofar as things always appear to people in the way that is determined by circumstances and the specific way they are used. This view of things leads to epistemological perspectivism, according to which our knowledge of things is always conditioned by the perspective of their consideration. From this perspectivism follows epistemological pluralism, which affirms the diversity (plurality) of ways of looking at things. Such perspectivism is also relativism: our knowledge of things is determined by our activities and the situation in which we find ourselves . Knowledge turns out to be situationally relative (relative).
Does this mean that we are unable to distinguish truth from lies? A positive answer to this question is not consistent with our interpretation of the thesis about man as the measure of all things. Indeed, provided that two carpenters have approximately the same hands and have almost the same strength, etc., they will usually easily come to an agreement which hammer is better suited to do a particular job. Two scientists will agree on the specific gravity and hardness of a hammer presented to them, etc. In other words , this type of perspectivism (pluralism, relativism), associated with different situations and professions, does not entail erasing the distinction between truth and falsehood. The carpenter is able to make both true and false statements about the hammer. The same is true for scientists, salespeople, etc. When we reason in a particular situation about an object (for example, about a hammer) as it is represented in it, we assert a truth about it as long as we say that the object is what it is in this situation. We are talking here about the object itself, such as a hammer, and not about some imaginary object.
However, if an object only shows itself in certain perspectives, then how can we be sure that it is the same object, such as the hammer we are talking about, when we move from one perspective to another? This question can be answered by pointing out that in fact the different perspectives overlap with each other. A carpenter is not only a carpenter. As a family member could be, for example, a father, son or brother. He participates in market relations, for example, with suppliers of the materials he needs or with buyers of the products he produces as a buyer and seller. In this sense there are intersections and fluid transitions between different perspectives. Thanks to this, we can identify the “same” object, such as a hammer, in different contexts.
But on what basis can we say all this? Is what has just been said about perspectivism itself a truth that itself depends on a particular perspective? By answering “yes,” we relativize all of the above and move to a position of skepticism. By answering “no,” we limit perspectivism to our knowledge of things: when it comes to our theoretical reflection, it does not depend on any perspective, but has logical universal validity.
The latter does not correspond, however, to the position of Protagoras. One of the fragments of his writings indicates that he wanted to expand perspectivalism beyond the perception of things to include theoretical reasoning.
3) Both in the field of theoretical knowledge and in the field of morality, the significance of Socrates lies not so much in the content and systematization of the ideas he expressed, but in the method by which they were developed. This method consisted of ascending from the particular to the general. Socrates had the art of forming general concepts in the minds of his interlocutors. For morality this meant creating common moral values. In contrast to the sophists, who exchanged objective norms of morality for the small coin of conditional needs and personal arbitrariness, Socrates raised among his contemporaries the belief in the existence of an unconditional moral good. Socrates viewed moral activity from the point of view of expediency. We act correctly when our actions achieve the intended goal. It follows from this that for correct action it is necessary to know the relationship between goals and means of achieving them. Moreover, all our actions are only morally valuable when we have correct knowledge of good. It follows from this that all good deeds are conditioned by knowledge or wisdom - and vice versa, the one who knows the good, according to Socrates, inevitably strives for it and achieves it. Evil can only come from ignorance of good and the path to it. This establishment of an inextricable connection between knowledge of good and good deeds leads Socrates to identify wisdom with virtue, rationality with goodness.
An additional part for those suffering who will be faced with this question and will need to expand on it (:
Socrates believed that it is impossible to know space, because in this case a person becomes entangled in hopeless contradictions . A person can only know what is in his power, i.e. your soul. Hence Socrates’ acceptance of the demand “Know thyself.”
True knowledge, as Socrates understood it, is designed to give a person the right guidelines for his everyday life. That's why the value of all knowledge– natural human and divine phenomena and relationships – is to learn to conduct human affairs wisely.
In philosophy, central to him were not ontological Problems, A ethical and epistemological (i.e. criteria for the truth and reliability of knowledge - epistemology), and the latter – as complementary to ethics. Socrates was the first to point out the meaning of concepts, the importance of their definition, and the role of induction in their formation (all this is mainly applied to ethics). Soul, in his opinion, is antipode of the body: if the body is natural and consists of natural particles, then the soul has concepts in its content. The highest concepts are Good, Justice, Truth. Thanks to the soul, a person learns things, their place in the world, and most importantly, the relationship of a person to a person, to himself. Truth is needed to act, and actions must be virtuous and fair.
To reach the truth There are different ways. Main of them Socrates considered maieutics. Its essence was to by means of successive questions, force the interlocutor, first to experience a feeling of confusion, to move away from the initial incorrect or one-sided understanding and then to come to the truth. In other words, maieutics is a dialogical way of generating new knowledge. It was a search for truth through contradictions.
Socrates' insight into the essence of human problems required new, true ways of knowledge. Man and his place in the world have become the central problem in ethics The moral and ethical meaning of the human search for truth and the acquisition of knowledge is predetermined by the fact that the origins of both knowledge and morality go back, according to Socrates, to the gods. The measure of human virtue is the measure of his communion with divine wisdom, and the process of cognition takes on the character of a moral action, a moral act . The path of knowledge outlined by Socrates is his school of virtue.
The harmony of the universe, predetermined and permeated by the divine mind, serves as a prerequisite for the rational, purposeful and purposeful earthly activity of man and his virtuous life. Knowledge about man, the forms of his individual, social and political life, his soul and body, vices and virtues and knowledge about the world as a whole- this, according to Socrates, is not different knowledge, but only various parts of a single knowledge of the divine truth of existence.
Philosophy as the love of wisdom in the Socratic interpretation appears as the love of divine wisdom . Knowledge is divine and only it elevates a person and likens him to the gods. Contrary to the majority opinion Socrates defended the principle of the universal dominance of reason - in nature, in the individual and in human society as a whole. Therefore, true knowledge, according to Socrates, comes from God and leads to him. And the true path of human knowledge consists in understanding the divine wisdom that governs all affairs. Wherein the highest manifestation of divine care for people is human intelligence.
Man, according to Socrates, would be completely devoid of reason and knowledge if he, along with the mortal body, did not have an immortal soul. Besides , the soul is the keeper of the knowledge it previously acquired in eternal wanderings in this and the other world; Human knowledge is, in essence, the soul’s recollection of previous knowledge. The position on the immortality of the soul occupies a leading place in the moral philosophy of Socrates, defining the meaning and goals of human existence in the world, his life and death.
He believed that the soul should be the “rider” of the body, the body exists for the soul, and not vice versa, that is, to subordinate the body to the soul is the highest goal of man. It is because of the violation of this rule that everything bad and evil arises.
The immortality of the soul, according to Socrates, clearly shows that only a rational and virtuous life is expedient and corresponds to the divine harmony of the universe and its providential goals.
The main thing on this path of getting rid of torment is caring for the soul: neglecting bodily pleasures, which are more likely to do harm than good, and decorating the soul with the true virtuous fruits of knowledge - truth, justice, freedom, courage, temperance.
Ethical virtue as a whole and its various parts and manifestations - for example, virtues such as piety, wisdom, prudence, courage, justice, etc. - represent knowledge that ensures the choice of good and rejection of evil. The regulating role of knowledge, according to Socrates, is unconditional and absolute: “... there is nothing stronger than knowledge, it always and in everything overpowers pleasure and everything else.” That's why evil is happening, according to Socrates, out of ignorance, lack of knowledge. An evil act is the result of a misunderstanding of what true good is, and not the result of rational evil; in other words, intentional evil is not possible.
To a significant extent, Socratic ethics is characterized by the rapprochement between ignorance and madness, characteristic of ancient ideas, and the attitude towards crime as an act of madmen.
For Socrates, good and evil are a consequence of the presence or absence of the same principle, namely knowledge.
Opinion, if true, leads to correct actions and virtuous deeds. True opinion, like knowledge, guides a person, directs him to the right goal and keeps him within the boundaries of virtue.
Every person, gifted or untalented, must, according to Socrates, study and practice in what he wants to achieve success in.
What is the basis of virtue according to Socrates? and got the best answer
Answer from Daniel Friedman[guru]
The central problems of Socrates' philosophy were problems of ethics and morality. Socrates valued goodness, goodness, courage, and justice. The basis of virtue according to Socrates is knowledge, that is, a person commits non-virtuous deeds because he does not know that they are non-virtuous.
In matters of ethics, Socrates developed the problem of rationalism, arguing that virtue stems from knowledge. This position of Socrates is called ethical rationalism.
In Pre-Socratics, the position about the identity of knowledge and virtue was already revealed comprehensively and thoroughly: knowledge is the highest dignity (arete) for a person; it is its distinctive feature and even its purpose; good is knowledge, since good consists in joining the cosmic mind, for which an appropriate level of individual knowledge is necessary. Both goodness and knowledge are inextricably linked with being. A bad person cannot know the truth because he does not have the appropriate mode of existence. The one who knows cannot be evil, because he has become a particle of the world-building force. But Socrates, putting forward the doctrine of the identity of good and knowledge, was outside the circle of cosmological intuitions of the first philosophers; he rejected cosmology as a dogma.
The main thesis of Socrates is that knowledge and virtue are identical.
Good, according to Socrates, is beauty and truth. “And in order to do good, Athenians,” Socrates urged, “create and love beauty, for it is the highest good,” and beauty is both good and truth. “If we saw the beauty of virtue (the beauty of doing good), that is, if we really knew it, then we would be convinced that virtue is the most beautiful of all. And since we are attracted to the beautiful, (and virtue is the attraction to do good ), and we recognize that virtue is the most beautiful thing - then we cannot help but be attracted to it more than to everything else."
Socrates defended the objective nature of knowledge, attached great importance to the study of man as a moral being, pointed out the kinship of the soul and the deity and the probability of the immortality of the soul. In G-d he saw the source of virtue and justice.
The measure of human virtue is the measure of his communion with divine wisdom, and the process of cognition takes on the character of a moral action, a moral act.
Can virtue be taught? It would seem that, based on the definition of virtue as knowledge, this question should be answered unequivocally in the affirmative. However, Socrates, after a thorough discussion of this topic, comes to a negative conclusion: virtue cannot be taught. This is the case because Socrates distinguishes between knowledge and opinion. Strictly speaking, knowledge and, therefore, virtue, according to Socrates, is divine reason, accessible, and even then not completely, only to philosophical clarification in concepts.
Answer from 2 answers[guru]
Hello! Here is a selection of topics with answers to your question: What, according to Socrates, is the basis of virtue?
Answer from MadJedi[guru]
moral
PS
morality is the internal attitude of an individual to act in accordance with his conscience and free will - in contrast to morality, which is an external requirement for the behavior of an individual, along with the law.
It is with morality that the distinction between good and evil is connected. Unlike benefit and harm, good and evil involve the intentionality of some free will. (wiki)
Answer from M@lchish - Kib@lchish.[guru]
How can a person be moral if he does not know what virtue is? ! Morality merges with knowledge. True morality, according to Socrates, is the knowledge of what is good and beautiful and at the same time useful for a person, which helps him achieve bliss and happiness in life.
The main virtues according to Socrates: restraint (how to tame passions); courage (how to overcome dangers); and justice (how to observe human and divine laws). A person acquires these virtues through knowledge and self-knowledge.
VI century BC – VI century AD
45.The basic principle of ancient philosophy was:
cosmocentrism
46.The main problem solved by the philosophers of the Milesian school:
problem from the beginning
47. Thesis belonging to the thinker Thales:
"Know Thyself"
48. Thesis belonging to the thinker Thales
"The beginning of all things is water"
49. Anaximenes took the first principle of all things
50.The statement: “Number is the essence and meaning of everything that is in the world” belongs to:
Pythagoras
51. Follower of Pythagoras, the first to draw the system of the world and place the Central Fire at the center of the universe
Parmenides
52. For the first time the concept of being was used in philosophy
Parmenides
53. Movement, any change is only an illusion of the sensory world, they argued:
54. Representatives of which philosophical school posed the problem of being, contrasted the world of feelings with the world of reason and argued that movement, any change is only an illusion of the sensory illusory world:
Eleatic
55.What do you think, the hypothetical dispute of which philosophers was depicted by A.S. Pushkin in the poem “Movement”?
Zeno and Heraclitus
56. An ancient philosopher who believed that you cannot enter the same river twice:
Heraclitus
57.Which of the ancient philosophers taught that everything develops, that the first cause of the world and its fundamental principle is fire, that you cannot enter the same river twice?
Heraclitus
58. The concept of “Logos” in the philosophical teachings of Heraclitus means:
Universal law, the action of which everything in the world is subject to
59. For the first time expressed the idea of the atomic structure of matter:
Democritus
60. The statement: “Man is the measure of all things” belongs to:
Protagoras
62.Knowledge according to Socrates is identical:
virtues
63.The essence of Socrates’ “ethical rationalism”:
virtue is the result of knowing what is good, while lack of virtue is the result of ignorance
64.Objective-idealistic philosophy was founded by:
Plato
65. In antiquity, the merit of the discovery of the supersensible world of ideas belongs to:
66. In Plato’s philosophy, how does the idea of a “horse” differ from a real, living, real horse? Please indicate the wrong answer.
The idea is immortal, eternal, the real horse is mortal
67. In Plato’s philosophy, the idea of a “horse” differs from a real, living horse in that:
the idea is material, the real horse is ideal
68. The statement that the soul before the birth of a person was in the world of ideas, therefore in the process of cognition it is able to remember them, belongs to:
69. The source of knowledge is the soul’s recollection of the world of ideas, believed:
70. Philosopher who considered logic the main tool of knowledge:
Aristotle
71. Philosopher, student of Plato:
Aristotle
Aristotle
73.According to Aristotle, the human soul does not include
Mineral Soul
74.The essence of the ethical teaching of Epicurus is that:
you need to enjoy life
75.Roman poet, follower of Epicurus, author of the poem “On the Nature of Things”
76.The statement: “It’s not what happens to us that matters, but how we relate to it” corresponds to the worldview:
77.Roman philosopher, teacher of Nero, author of “Letters to Lucillius”, representative of Stoicism
78. The philosopher who lived in a barrel considered himself a “citizen of the world” and called for poverty and ignorance
Diogenes of Sinope
MEDIEVALISM
79.A characteristic feature of medieval philosophy is:
theocentrism
80.Which of the following features is not characteristic of medieval philosophical thought?
81. Theocentrism is a worldview position based on the idea of primacy:
82. Philosophy in the Middle Ages occupied a subordinate position in relation to:
theology
83. The set of religious doctrines and teachings about the essence and action of God:
theology
84.Works of early Christian literature not included in the biblical canon, i.e. recognized by the official church as “false”
Apocrypha
85.Eschatology is
The doctrine of the ultimate destinies of the world and man
86. Savior, deliverer from troubles, anointed of God
87. Restriction or suppression of sensual desires, voluntary enduring of physical pain, loneliness:
asceticism
88. The ideological principle, according to which the world was created by God out of nothing, is called:
Creationism
89. Teaching about the salvation of the soul
Soteriology
90. The principle according to which God determines the entire course of history and the fate of each person
Creationism
91.The main task of Christian apologists was:
In justifying the advantages of Christianity over paganism
92.The name of the period of creative ministry of the “Church Fathers”(III- VIIIcenturies)who laid the foundations of Christian philosophy and theology; in their In the works of confrontation-dialogue with Greco-Roman philosophy, the formation of a system of Christian dogma takes place:
patristics
93. Outstanding representative of patristics, author of the books “Confession”, “About the City of God”
Augustine
94. “Six Days” is a book that set out:
Christian ontology and cosmogony
95.Scholasticism is:
a type of philosophizing characterized by speculativeness and the primacy of logical-epistemological problems
96. Features such as speculativeness, interest in formal-logical problems, subordination to theology are inherent in:
scholasticism
97. Representative of medieval philosophy:
Thomas Aquinas
98. Representative of medieval Western European philosophy:
F. Aquinas
99.The art of interpretation of sacred texts, developed in the Middle Ages
Exegesis
100. The problem of proving the existence of God was one of the central ones for
Thomas Aquinas
RENAISSANCE PHILOSOPHY
101.The era of restoration of the ideals of antiquity in Europe:
Renaissance
102.The most important feature of the philosophical thought and culture of the Renaissance is:
anthropocentrism
103.A characteristic feature of Renaissance philosophy is:
anthropocentrism
104. In what city was the Platonic Academy revived in the 15th century?
Florence
105. Type of worldview, according to which man is the center and highest goal of the universe:
anthropocentrism
106. The main object of study, the measure of things and relationships in the Renaissance:
107.The secular worldview position of the Renaissance, opposed to scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church:
humanism
108. The opposition of an individual to society is typical for:
individualism
109.The type of worldview characteristic of the Renaissance, which is based on the opposition of the individual to society:
Pico della Mirandola
111.Representative of Renaissance philosophy:
112. The propositions about the infinity of the Universe in time and space, about the identity of God and nature were substantiated by:
Petrarch
114. Renaissance philosophy is characterized by
nostalgia for ancient culture
115. The doctrine developed during the Renaissance, and asserting the identity of God and nature, that “nature is God in things”
Pantheism
EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHY 17-18 centuries.
116. Liberation from church influence
Secularization
117.Philosophical direction that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior
Rationalism
118.The basic claim of rationalism is that
The mind plays a priority role in human cognitive activity
119.Features of rationalismXVIIV. determined
Mathematics
120.French philosopher, also the creator of algebra and analytical geometry
R. Descartes
121.Dualistic philosophy is characteristic of
R. Descartes
122. On the question of substance, Rene Descartes adhered to
Dualism
123. The statement: “I think, therefore I exist” was expressed by
R. Descartes
124.What does the original thesis of Descartes’ philosophy mean, which in Latin sounds like “cogitoergosum»?
if I think, therefore I exist
125. The idea “never accept as true something that I do not clearly know to be true” belongs to:
R.Descartes
126. The main statement of empiricism
All human knowledge is based on experience
127.The direction that considers sensory experience to be the only source of our knowledge about the world
Sensationalism
129. The main method of scientific knowledge, according to F. Bacon, should be
Induction
130. F. Bacon’s division of experiments into “fruitful” and “luminous” corresponds to the division of knowledge into:
Sensual and rational
131.According to Francis Bacon, any knowledge must:
rely on experience and move from the individual to the general
132. Philosopher who believed that a child’s mind is like a blank slatetabularasa
133. “War of all against all” is a natural state, he believed
134. Adhered to the theory of “social contract”
135. Philosopher who took the so-called “monads” as the basis of existence
G. Leibniz
136. Simple indivisible substance according to Leibniz
137.A representative of subjective idealism is:
J. Berkeley
138. The central philosophical problem of D. Hume
Cognition
139. The central problem in the philosophy of the French Enlightenment
Human
140.The main idea of the philosophy of the French Enlightenment
The priority of reason as the highest authority in solving problems of human society
141. One of the most important ideas of French philosophy of the Enlightenment cannot be considered
The idea of equality of all people
142.The essence of deism is
Reducing the role of God to the creation of matter and the first impulse
143. Representative of the philosophy of the French Enlightenment
J.-J. Rousseau
144. “Man was born to be free, and yet everywhere he is in chains,” asserted
J.-J. Rousseau
145.The cause of inequality in human society is J.-J. Rousseau believed
Own
146.French philosopher, supporter of sensationalism
147.The center of the European Enlightenment in the mid-18th century was
148.The idea of the rule of law includes the provision of
Separation of powers
149.French philosopher who believed in the omnipotence of education and argued that people from birth have equal abilities
GERMAN CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY
150.Chronological framework of German classical philosophy
152.The most important philosophical work of Immanuel Kant
"Critique of Practical Reason"
153.The subject of theoretical philosophy according to I. Kant should be research:
laws of reason and its boundaries
154.According to I. Kant, in order for knowledge to be reliable, it must:
to be universal and necessary
155. I. Kant believes that space and time:
there are innate, pre-experimental forms of sensuality
156. In the philosophy of I. Kant, a “thing in itself” is
That which causes sensations in us, but cannot itself be known
157. In the philosophy of I. Kant, antinomies take place where, with the help of human reason, they try to draw conclusions about:
the world of “things in themselves”
you would like them to act towards you
159. The statement: “Act in such a way that the maxim of your will can at the same time become the principle of universal legislation” belongs to
160. According to I. Kant, for the formation of a person as a moral being, it is of fundamental importance
G.W.F.Hegel
162. The philosophy of G. Hegel is characterized by:
panlogism
163. Hegel’s theory of development, which is based on the unity and struggle of opposites, is called:
dialectics
164.Reality, which forms the basis of the world, according to Hegel:
Absolute idea
165. Representative of German classical philosophy:
L. Feuerbach
166. Which of the following thinkers is not a representative of German classical philosophy?
167.The representative of materialism is
L. Feuerbach
168. Divided reality into the “world of things in themselves” and the “world of phenomena”
169.Not a characteristic feature of German classical philosophy
Denial of transcendental, divine existence
170. A thinker who lived his entire life in Koenigsberg and taught at the university there
171.According to Hegel, the true engine of world history is
World Spirit
WESTERN EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHY 19-20 centuries.
172.Philosophical direction that denies or limits the role of reason in knowledge, highlighting will, contemplation, feeling, intuition
Irrationalism
173.Philosophical direction, which claims that the mind only floats on the surface of things, while the essence of the world is revealed to us through intuition, experience, understanding
Philosophy of life
174. Representatives of the “philosophy of life” include
175. Considered will as the main principle of life and knowledge
A. Schopenhauer
176.Arthur Schopenhauer considered substance, the fundamental principle of the world
The will to live
177. The central concept of A. Bergson’s philosophical teaching is the vital impulse (élanvital). Its knowledge is possible with the help of:
Friedrich Nietzsche
179. Founder of positivism
Auguste Comte
Marxism
Pragmatism
182.Irrationalistic direction in philosophyXXcentury
Existentialism
183.The term “existentialism” comes from the French word, which translated into Russian means
Existence
184.The form of being that is the focus of existentialism
Individual human existence
185. The provisions about the absolute freedom of man, his abandonment and loneliness, about the borderline situation that can reveal the true essence of man, were substantiated in philosophy
Existentialism
186.The direction of philosophy in which man is viewed as a self-determining, self-creating being
Existentialism
187. The existentialist view of man corresponds to the statement that
Man is doomed to be free and bear absolute responsibility for his actions.
RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY
188. The most important features of Russian philosophy cannot be attributed
Pre-systematic, pre-logical character
189. One of the cross-cutting ideas of Russian philosophy is the idea of apokatastasis, the essence of which is
The salvation of all people without exception: both righteous and sinners
190.The characteristic features of Russian philosophy include:
Empiricism
191. Supreme god in Slavic mythology, creator of the Universe, manager of rain and thunderstorms, patron of family and home
192.Old Russian thought is characterized by:
Revaluation of external material existence
193.The pre-philosophy of Kievan Rus is characterized by:
mysticism
194.The date of adoption of Orthodoxy in Rus' is considered
195. The city in which, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich was baptized
196. Kievan Rus took over the “cultural baton” from:
Golden Horde
197.The double-headed eagle was first adopted as the state symbol of Russia
Ivan III in the 15th century
198.The genre of social utopia in ancient Russian literature includes
"A Word on Law and Grace"
199. Sergius of Radonezh was a contemporary
Battle of Kulikovo
200.The famous Russian icon painter is:
Feofan the Greek
"Trinity"
202. “The Sermon on Law and Grace” was written by
203. First substantiated the ideology “Moscow – the Third Rome”
204.The initiator of the correction of church books, which was the reason for the schism, was:
Patriarch Nikon
205.The founder of Russian book printing is:
I. Fedorov
206.Spiritual leader of non-possessors
Neil Sorsky
207. They opposed the ownership of land by monasteries; they believed that the accumulation of wealth was contrary to monastic vows
non-acquisitive
208.Code of the feudal way of life, which prescribed how to build a family and run a household, created in Rus' in the 16th century
"Domostroy"
209. Archpriest Avvakum was a spiritual leader
schismatics
210. In “Vertograd the Multicolored” Simeon of Polotsk likens the world
211.One of the first supporters of the idea of Pan-Slavism (unification of all Slavs)
Yuri Krizhanich
212. Companion of Peter the Great, Archbishop of Novgorod, author of the “Spiritual Regulations”
Feofan Prokopovich
213.The Russian Academy of Sciences was founded in
214. A supporter of deistic materialism in Russian philosophy was
M.V. Lomonosov
215.When Moscow University was opened, its three faculties did not include:
physical
216. Freemasonry was brought to Russia from:
217.One of the central ideas of Freemasonry includes:
Improving a person through personal and collective self-knowledge
218.According to contemporaries, “he created in us a love of science and a desire to read”
N.I. Novikov
219. Nicknamed “Russian Socrates”
G.S. frying pan
220.According to G.S. Skovoroda, all reality falls into three worlds, of which this is not the case:
society
221.The work “About Man, His Mortality and Immortality,” which is one of the first philosophical and anthropological works in the history of Russian thought, was written
A.N. Radishchev
222.The question of the role and place of Russia in the history of mankind was raised in the “Philosophical Letters”:
P. Chaadaev
223.The first “Philosophical Letter” was published in the magazine
Telescope
224. The main ideas of the “Philosophical Letters” cannot be attributed
Following the Christian commandments as the only path to salvation, to the Kingdom of Heaven
225. Was declared Emperor NicholasIcrazy for his philosophical views
P.Ya. Chaadaev
226.Who owns the following pessimistic lines: “Alone in the world, we gave nothing to the world, took nothing from the world, we did not contribute in any way to the forward movement of the human mind, and we distorted everything that we got from this movement. Since the very first moments of our social existence, nothing suitable for the common good of people has come from us, not a single useful thought has sprouted in the barren soil of our homeland, not a single great truth has been brought forward from our midst”?
F.H. Cassidy
SOCRATES
Chapter Five
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF SOCRATES
It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the Greeks gravitated towards intellectualism not only in their understanding of conscience, but also in their understanding of virtue and moral phenomena in general. The observed intellectualism was also reflected in Socrates’ thesis about virtue as knowledge. True, one can object to this that Socrates’ thesis ran counter to the public opinion of that time. And for whom was it not (and is not) obvious that knowing the best does not necessarily entail choosing the best. Or, according to Ovid’s aphorism: “I know and praise what is better, but I choose the worst (Video meliora proboque, deteriora sequor)” (Metamorphoses. VII. 20 - 21). All this is true, but it is also true that the very advancement of such an intellectualistic-sounding thesis was possible only in the atmosphere of the intellectualistic ethics of the Greeks. The described atmosphere softened Socrates' thesis, but one gets the impression that Socrates himself seemed to challenge his contemporaries, provoked them into polemics with him and was determined to defend his paradox, following the conclusions from the premises he had once accepted.
For the initial premise of his reasoning about virtue as knowledge, Socrates took reason as the decisive feature that distinguishes a person from an animal and, in general, from all living beings. From this premise it was quite logical to conclude that a person, thanks to reason, sets himself certain goals and objectives; relying on acquired knowledge and skills, he strives to realize his intentions; The more complete a person’s knowledge and the higher his skill, the more successfully he solves his problems and the more fully he satisfies his needs. Socrates believed that only knowledge allows a person to wisely use the means at his disposal, for example, wealth and health, to achieve well-being and happiness (Euthydem. 281 a - b). From here he built the following syllogism: wealth and health in themselves are neither good (good) nor evil. They become one or the other depending on knowledge or ignorance. Therefore, knowledge is good (agathon), ignorance is evil (kakon) (see also 281 p.). However, Socrates does not stop at this conclusion. In “Euthydemus” (291 a - 292 e), especially in “Charmides” (173 a - 174 e) of Plato, saying that knowledge is good, Socrates believes that knowledge is different from knowledge; knowledge in productive activities, for example, of a carpenter or tanner, is one thing, and knowledge in the field of political government aimed at making people worthy is another thing (Euthidemus 292 d), not to mention knowledge of good and evil in the sphere of morality, where it surpasses in value all other types of knowledge (Charmides. 174 b). Socrates' ethical knowledge is comprehensive; it is knowledge of what constitutes happiness and determines the correct choice of behavior and mode of activity in general to achieve it.
We have already noted that Socrates considered it inappropriate to draw a complete analogy between ethical behavior and practical activities, for example, making things. The unacceptability of such an analogy for him is also evidenced by the enormous importance that Socrates attached to ethical knowledge in comparison with other types of knowledge. However, the promotion of ethical knowledge to the fore and the limitation of the analogy between ethical behavior and practical activity gave his thesis about virtue as knowledge, perhaps, an even more paradoxical character than it was at the beginning of his reasoning, when he spoke about the role of knowledge in general.
It would seem that the easiest way to solve this issue is the way some modern authors solve it, declaring that “knowledge is not the only regulator of behavior. In addition to knowledge, the behavior of a particular person, especially in everyday, interpersonal relationships, is greatly and sometimes decisively influenced by desires, feelings (likes, dislikes, envy, indifference, etc.), will, habits and even moods” (Tabunov. S. .54). This idea is not new. It was also known to Socrates. Many of his contemporaries argued that there are many cases when people, “knowing what is best, do not want to do so, even if they had the opportunity,” but act contrary to their knowledge because they “yield to the power of pleasure.” or suffering,” or any other experiences and emotions (Plato. Protagoras. 862 d - e).
It seems that, polemicizing against this widespread opinion, Socrates undertook to prove the thesis about the existence of an unambiguous connection between knowledge and behavior, about the impossibility of such a situation when a person, not forced by external circumstances, would act contrary to his knowledge, in contrast to the fact that he thinks it's correct. The argument put forward by Socrates is so sophisticated and overly complex that one has to trace it in more or less detail to discover its weaknesses.
First of all, Socrates directs his efforts to refute the popular opinion about the power of pleasure or pain as the source of bad actions. To this end, he distinguishes pleasures and pains into those that accompany an action at the moment, and those that are the consequences of this action in the future. Following this, Socrates shows that there are actions and actions (bodily exercises, military campaigns, cauterizations, incisions, taking medications and fasting) that are currently painful, cause pain and suffering, but are nevertheless considered good because in the future bring “health, strength of body, benefit to the state, dominion over others and enrichment” (354 a - b). In accordance with this, he notes that although some bad actions are pleasant, despite the immediate pleasure they cause, everyone recognizes them as evil, because the subsequent suffering and torment associated with these actions outweigh the pleasures contained in them (354 c - d).
In short, people judge and evaluate actions based on expected consequences. From this Socrates concludes: if the right action is considered to be one in which good outweighs evil, and if a person knows what is best, then “it is ridiculous... the statement that often a person, knowing that evil is evil, and having the opportunity not to commit it, nevertheless he does it, attracted and confused by pleasures, and as if he, knowing the good, does not want to create it, overpowered by fleeting pleasures” (355, a - b). Socrates does not allow that a person, having knowledge of the good (good), would not create it for the sake of dubious pleasures. It excludes the possibility of a situation where a person, knowing that the short-term and superficial pleasure delivered by an action at the moment is associated with terrible and deep suffering in the future, would condemn himself to greater suffering due to less pleasure. After all, we must keep in mind, says Socrates, that pleasures and pains are compared and evaluated according to their greater or lesser magnitude: “... They are greater or lesser than each other, more abundant or less abundant, stronger or weaker” (356 a). Insisting that no other distinction between pleasures and pains is possible other than their natural difference, he understands that he may be objected to: “However, Socrates, there is a big difference between what is pleasant now and what will be either pleasant or unpleasant in the future.” painful" (356a). To the question of an imaginary opponent, Socrates replies: “You, like a person who knows how to weigh well, add up everything that is pleasant and add up everything that is painful, both immediate and distant, and, putting it on the scales, tell me which is more” (356 b). Socrates' reasoning boils down to the fact that, given the above comparison and weighing, no one will choose a lesser (and less worthy) pleasure instead of a greater (and more worthy) one.
At the same time, it should be noted that Socrates, paying main attention to the amount of pleasure and pain, pushes into the background instantaneous or extended pleasure (pleasure). Therefore, he goes further, turning to the "metric art", to the art of measuring, and develops the idea that the use of knowledge in the field of this art or science will ensure the correct choice of action. “Since it turns out to us,” Socrates declares, “that the well-being of our life depends on the right choice between pleasure and pain, between abundant and insignificant, greater and less, distant and close, then does not measurement come to the first place here, since it considers “What is more, what is less, and what is equal to each other?” (357 a - b). Having received a positive answer, Socrates continues: “And since there is dimension here, then inevitably there will also be art and knowledge (technē kai epistēmē)” (357 b).
In essence, Socrates’ argument, for all its complexity, is based on a simple and clear consideration that, before deciding on something and doing something, you first need to think and choose (according to the proverb “measure twice, cut once”). . According to Socrates, no one will dispute that the question of well-being is a question of the “correct” choice of action. The right choice is determined by knowledge.
Socrates' argument is impressive. It is no coincidence that some modern authors also resort to it. It derives its persuasive power from the concept of “choice” (airesis). The use of this concept should be considered a great achievement of the ancient philosopher. Indeed, if good and evil are the basic ethical concepts and if, in accordance with this central question of morality and morality, the question of choice (good and evil) arises, then the role of knowledge in behavior, which Socrates first drew attention to, becomes of paramount importance. Socrates was convinced that in human behavior “there is nothing stronger than knowledge; it always and in everything overpowers pleasures and everything else” (Plato. Protagoras. 357 p.). On this basis, he believed that those who make a mistake in choosing between pleasure and pain, that is, between good and evil, make a mistake due to a lack of “knowledge of the art of measurement” (357 d). Seeing the source of erroneous action in the absence of knowledge, he naturally came to the conclusion that “yielding to pleasure,” that is, a manifestation of weakness of will, is nothing more than “the greatest ignorance” (357 f). So, following Socrates, we can conclude that bad deeds are committed out of ignorance, and good ones - out of knowledge; that virtue is knowledge, and vice is ignorance.
Considering that Socrates' interlocutors in the Protagoras dialogue agreed with him on everything, it would seem that he could complete his analysis with this conclusion. However, this did not happen, because Socrates was aware that there was a gap between thought and action, knowledge and action. Therefore, going further, he pointed out that in the analysis of the problem under consideration there was something essential that was missing, namely the “nature” of man. According to him, “no one voluntarily strives for evil or for what he considers evil,” for “it is not in the nature of man to voluntarily desire instead of good what one considers evil” (358 d). Human nature is such that all people want to be happy (Plato. Euthydemus. 278 f) and there is no person who would like unhappiness for himself (Plato. Meno. 78 a).
Note that in the above texts of Plato, Socrates includes in his analysis such an important point in human behavior as “desire”, and, referring to the “nature” (mind) of a person, does not allow the idea that anyone would wish harm (unhappiness) for themselves. . It is not without interest to note that the hero of F. M. Dostoevsky’s Notes from Underground, the same tireless paradoxist as Socrates, without naming the name of Socrates, but implying it, most decisively rejects the Socratic (and generally rationalistic) understanding of man as a rational being and the normal nature of his needs. Based on the fact that it is not reason, but will (willfulness, self-will) that distinguishes man from animals, and insisting on the irrational needs of man (passion for destruction and chaos, the desire to do everything opposite to one’s own good, love of suffering and enjoyment of one’s own suffering), the hero “Notes” states: “Tell me, who was the first to announce, who was the first to proclaim that a person only does dirty tricks because he does not know his real interests; and that if he were enlightened, his eyes were opened to his real normal interests, then the person would immediately stop doing dirty tricks, would immediately become kind and noble, because, being enlightened and understanding the real benefits, he would see his own benefit in goodness ; But it is known that not a single person can act knowingly against his own interests, therefore, so to speak, out of necessity he would do good? O baby! O pure, innocent child! but when, firstly, has it happened, in all these millennia, that a person acted only out of his own benefit? What to do with millions of facts testifying to how people knowingly, i.e., fully understanding their real benefits, left them in the background and rushed to another road... After all, it means that they really enjoy this stubbornness and self-will more than any benefit... "(Dostoevsky. P. 110). F. M. Dostoevsky objects to Socrates and all ethical rationalists through the mouth of his hero, who claims that knowledge of good is not always accompanied by a desire to do good. On the contrary, “precisely because man always and everywhere, no matter who he was, loved to act as he wanted, and not at all as reason and benefit commanded him; You can want against your own benefit, and sometimes you should positively” (Ibid. p. 113). Finding in his own “will”, “willfulness” the most “profitable benefit” for a person and seeing in this his distinctive feature, Dostoevsky’s hero continues: “...reason, gentlemen, is a good thing, this is indisputable, but reason is only reason and satisfies only human rational abilities, and desire is a manifestation of all life, both with reason and with all the scratching” (Ibid. P. 115).
According to Socrates, the desire for evil is unnatural, for it is contrary to human nature. Socrates sought to prove that in moral behavior, the knowledge of what is good (happiness) is invariably accompanied by the desire to do good. The philosopher was convinced of the existence of a correspondence between knowledge and desire; more precisely, for him, the knowledge of good contained the will to good, the choice of good. This circumstance testifies to many things: that Socrates did not ignore desire, desire and will; that his ethical teaching was not as rationalistic as is usually believed.
In this regard, the semantic meaning of the term “knowledge” used by Socrates becomes clearer. It was already noted above that, speaking of knowledge, he did not mean knowledge in general, but ethical knowledge. For him, ethical knowledge was not just a theory, a theoretical comprehension of good and evil, but also a moral-volitional desire to do good and avoid evil. Putting forward a unique concept of ethical knowledge, he came to the conclusion that in all voluntary actions, knowledge of good is a necessary and sufficient condition for the creation of good. Along with this, he assumed that genuine ethical knowledge is capable of bridging the gap separating thought and action, being able to erase the line between what is and what should be. The question arises: who was right - Socrates, who considered virtue to be knowledge, or the public opinion of his time (and not only his), which argued that no matter what knowledge a person has, his desires, aspirations and inclinations can force him to act contrary to knowledge? The question can be formulated another way: is knowledge and cognition of what is good (happiness) necessarily accompanied by the desire to do good? Is the measure of virtue directly dependent on the degree of knowledge?
Let us leave the answer to these questions open for a while and consider another ethical paradox of Socrates, which boils down to the fact that no one does evil of his own free will, but only out of ignorance.
Thus, we returned to what has already been said - to the difference between science and morality, to the discrepancy between what is and what should be. Although this discrepancy concerns primarily the differences in the initial attitudes of Socrates and Aristotle that we discover and characterizes more the difference in their mentalities than in their specific views, nevertheless, we consider it appropriate to consider one of Aristotle’s main objections to the ethical teaching of Socrates, his thesis about virtue as knowledge.
Aristotle’s objection, which had a huge impact on the entire modern European history of philosophy when assessing the ethics of Socrates and gave F. Nietzsche the basis for his well-known attacks on Socrates, boils down to the fact that the latter identified morality with science and took the position of ethical intellectualism (ethical scientism, if we say in the latest terms). In the Nicomachean Ethics, the Stagirite writes: “Thus, if Socrates thought that virtue is (true) judgments (logoi), (because [in his opinion] they all represent knowledge), then we believe that they are only are involved in (correct) judgment” (VI. 13. 1144 b 25). Aristotle believed that Socrates did not understand the difference between theoretical and practical (productive) sciences, did not clarify the differences between types of knowledge and identified them. Meanwhile, Aristotle points out (Metaphysics. II. 1. 933 b 20), “the goal of theoretical knowledge is truth, and the goal of practical knowledge is action.”
Interpreting the ethical teaching of Socrates from the standpoint of his own distinction between theoretical and practical (productive) sciences, Aristotle (Ethica Eudemia. 1216 b 3 ff.) states: “Socrates believed that the ultimate goal is knowledge of virtue, and he asked what justice is and each from parts of virtue? This made sense since he believed that all virtues are sciences; thus, to know what justice is, meant at the same time to be fair; because once we have studied geometry and architecture, we become architects and geometers. It was for this reason that he investigated the question of what virtue is, and not how and from what (sources) it is acquired.”
Aristotle further notes that Socrates' thesis is true in the case of theoretical sciences: geometry, astronomy and the natural sciences in general, the goal of which is the acquisition of knowledge for the sake of knowledge, but not productive sciences (poētikon epistemōn), for which knowledge is only a means to achieve a goal, a result . Thus, the goal of medicine is health, and politics is legality or something similar.
In the end, for us (this is the thought of the Stagirite) it is not so important to know what virtue is, but it is important to know how virtue is acquired and under what conditions it is introduced into life (Aristoteles. Ethica Eudemia. 1215 b 22 - 25).
Aristotle expresses a similar thought in “Nicomachean Ethics” (II. 2. 1103 b 27), characterizing ethics as a type of practical (productive) science, the ultimate goal of which is the acquisition of virtue, the education of positive moral norms, and not the establishment of what virtue is . Such a formulation of the question and such an understanding of the task of ethics as a science would make Socrates (in the words of Guthrie) turn over in his grave. “How,” he would protest, “can I know how to achieve virtue if I don’t even know what it is? Can anyone make suitable shoes if he does not know what shoes are and what they are for?
To this objection Aristotle could, for his part, have answered something like this: “Socrates, even if we agree with you that the acquisition of virtue - be it courage, justice or piety - presupposes as a necessary condition knowledge of the nature of virtue and each of its parts, then it still cannot be said that this condition is completely sufficient. After all, knowing what courage is does not make a person courageous.
The first state is intellectual and theoretical, and the second is emotional and effective. The manifestation of courage or cowardice depends to a large extent on character traits. However, you, Socrates, are partly right when you assert that knowledge is a necessary condition for virtue, but you are wrong when you equate virtue with knowledge. Thus, in Plato's Protagoras (350 pp; 360 d) you reduce courage to knowledge and declare that understanding (sophia) of what is scary and what is not scary is courage. Likewise, with you, all types of virtue have become branches of ethical knowledge. You have mistakenly interpreted ethics as a theoretical science and made its ultimate goal not the achievement of virtue, but the knowledge of what virtue is.”
“No,” Socrates would protest again, “it is you, Stagirite, who are misinterpreting me, it occurred to you to separate wisdom from virtue (theoretical knowledge from practical, in your terminology), and therefore it seemed to you that for me knowledge of virtue matters more than acquiring virtue. Meanwhile, for me, virtue (prudence, justice and morality in general) is inseparable from wisdom” (Xenophon. Memoirs. III. 9, 4 - 5); wisdom guarantees the achievement of happiness and virtue (Plato. Protagoras. 352 b - c, 356 d; Meno. 88 c; 279 b - c). He who is wise is also good. The wise man understands, and not only knows: with his intellectual gaze he embraces life as a whole, and does not stop at ascertaining its empirical manifestations, and does not limit himself to establishing what “really” is.
Wise insight into the nature of virtue, which invariably gives rise to the conviction and desire to act virtuously, is not only a necessary but also a sufficient condition for becoming virtuous. True wisdom is incompatible with depravity and evil. (Or, in the words of A.S. Pushkin, “genius and villainy are two incompatible things.”)
This is the thought of Socrates, or rather, this could be his response to Aristotle’s criticism. It remains for us to make the following clarifications: in some respects, Aristotle distorts the position of Socrates, arguing that the latter was supposedly more occupied not with how virtue is acquired, how virtue is cultivated, but with what it is. However, Stagirite correctly pointed out the weak spot in Socrates' ethical teaching - his tendency to intellectualize morality, overestimate intellectual activity in the field of morality and underestimate the influence of character traits on individual behavior. According to Aristotle, Socrates abolishes the extra-rational (alogon) part of the soul, and with it passion (pathos) and disposition (Great Ethics. I. 1. 1182 a 22 - 23).
Although Socrates spoke about something else - about the possibility (and necessity) of changing feelings and character in the process of self-knowledge and knowledge of others on the path of searching for general definitions of virtues, and not about “doing away” with feeling and character, it is nevertheless difficult to free oneself from the impression that, according to Socrates, self-knowledge and the associated comprehension of the nature of good are quite sufficient to become virtuous. According to Aristotle, intellectual comprehension of the nature of morality is not necessarily accompanied by conviction and desire to act well. To acquire virtue, moral stability and, so to speak, emotional conviction are also required. That is why at the end of the Nicomachean Ethics he writes: “After all, whoever lives by passion will probably not listen to reasoning that turns him away (from passion), and even if he does, he will not understand (what’s what). How can you convince someone with such a mindset? And in general, passion seems to give way not to reasoning, but to violence. So, it is necessary that a disposition should already be present in advance, as if suitable for virtue, loving the beautiful and rejecting the shameful” (X. 10. 1179 b 25 ff.).
Aristotle agrees that virtue can and should be taught, but he believes that “it is impossible and, in any case, not easy, with the help of reasoning to make a change in what has long been rooted in morals” (1179 b 15 ff.). Moreover, Aristotle continues, reason and learning do not have the same effect on everyone; in the education of virtue, in addition to training and established habits, much depends “on the nature” of people, their natural inclinations” (Ibid.). Based on these arguments, Aristotle comes to the conclusion that ensuring normal behavior in society is possible through coercion, through state control over compliance with laws. According to his thoughts, most people obey fear rather than reason, and rather punishments than the morally beautiful (Ibid. 1179 b 10 - 15).
Here we can state another discrepancy between Socrates and Aristotle: the first saw in personal self-knowledge and in the intellectual comprehension of each person the nature of good as decisive conditions for the implementation of rational behavior, while the second did not place such hopes on the minds of most people and rejected the individualism of Socratic ethics. For Stagirite, it was obvious that “public attention (to education) arises thanks to laws, and good attention - thanks to respectable laws” (1180a 35). Seeing in the coercive power of the law a means of forming reasonable habits and morals, as well as correct inclinations, Aristotle believed at the same time that the law has “coercive power (anagkastikē dynamis), since it is a judgment (logos), based one way or another on prudence or intelligence.” (1180 a 20 cl.). If this is so, then the ultimate goal of reason is the search for the concept of good, the clarification of what is good and what is bad, for only on this path is it possible to establish reasonable laws. But what is said ultimately means that “virtue is knowledge.”
It remains to add that Aristotle, having criticized Socrates’ thesis about virtue as knowledge and discovered a deeper understanding of the nature of morality, nevertheless did not overcome Socrates’ intellectualism.
This was also Plato's position. Although in all periods of his work he was guided by his teacher’s thesis about virtue as knowledge, the acute awareness of the weaknesses of human nature that never left him ultimately led him to the conclusion that a more or less successful implementation of the ideal contained in the Socratic thesis is impossible without forced the forces of law and state. According to Plato, most people are at the mercy of emotions and passions, and are guided in their behavior by selfish motives (selfishness), and not by truth, justice and reason (Laws. 731 d - 732 b). Only an exceptionally gifted person is able to follow reason, truth and justice: such a person does not need “laws to govern him,” for his reason cannot be “anyone’s obedient slave” (Ibid. 875 p.).
This is how Plato modifies the thought of Socrates (Protagoras 352 c) regarding the power of knowledge, its independence from passions and emotions. According to Plato, a man of genius, being a truly free person, is guided in his actions by true knowledge. But since, Plato continues, “in our time you will not find this anywhere, except perhaps on a small scale” (Plato. Laws. 875 a), one must resort to the law to instill virtues; the force of law is necessary to protect general interests due to the constant encroachment on them by private interests, as well as to protect public (state) order from the arbitrariness of individuals and the willfulness of the majority of people (Ibid. 875 a - c).
We have already noted that the historical merit of Socrates consisted in the search for ethical definitions, in the transformation of ethics and ethical concepts into the subject of philosophical research. That is why Aristotle, who constantly criticized Socrates for ethical intellectualism, at the same time pays him tribute and believes that his search for their definitions was the impetus for the analysis of general concepts (Met. XIII. 9). Let us also recall that Socrates' search for general ethical definitions, stimulated by the Sophists, was directed against their moral relativism.
Revolting against the Sophists, Socrates began to defend the universally binding nature of moral norms and concepts, to defend their objective significance. On this path, he came to the conclusion that virtue is one and there cannot be two virtues, just as there cannot be two truths about the same subject in the same respect.
Socrates drew paradoxical and sometimes erroneous conclusions from the idea of the unity of virtue and its manifestations. Thus, from his reasoning it followed that the one who acquired one of the manifestations of virtue, for example, courage, thereby acquired all other types of virtue. Let us give an excerpt from Plato’s dialogue “Protagoras” (349 b - c), where Socrates, addressing Protagoras, says: “...Wisdom, prudence, courage, justice, piety - are these five designations of the same thing (virtue. - F.K. ), or, on the contrary, under each of these designations lies a certain special essence and thing that has its own special property, so that they do not coincide with each other? You said that these are not designations for the same thing, but each of these designations belongs to a special thing, but they are all parts of virtue - not like parts of gold, similar to each other and to the whole of which they are parts, but as parts of the face: they are not similar either to the whole of which they are parts, or to each other, and each have their own special property.” To this Protagoras replies: “... I repeat to you, Socrates, that all these are parts of virtue and that four of them are really close to each other, but courage is very different from all of them. And that I am right, you will understand from this: you can find many people who are the most unjust, wicked, unbridled and ignorant, and at the same time extremely courageous” (Ibid. 349 d). Then, through a series of questions and answers, Socrates forces Protagoras to admit that “the understanding of what is scary and what is not scary is courage” (Ibid. 380 d). This means that only rationally prudent courage (courage, valor) is a virtue, and rationally unreasonable fear is a vice. Thus, a brave warrior is brave not because he allegedly faces danger without fear, but because, knowing fear, he fears for his life and the life of his loved ones if the war is lost; only he is valiant who risks his life because he does not dare to risk something more, namely a worthy life, that is, a life worth living; true courage comes not from fearlessness, but from rationally prudent fear, fear of what is truly terrible, fear of the loss of a greater good. Simply put, courage (valor, bravery, bravery) is calculation and evaluation, comparison and identification of what ultimately poses a greater danger and what is less. Therefore, a wise person is necessarily courageous, and only stupid people are cowardly (Taylor. R. 87 - 88). There is no need to prove that courage and many other moral qualities are not reduced to calculation, to rational activity and a reasonable choice of the most profitable, worthy and valuable. Nevertheless, Socrates’ idea of the unity of virtue and all its manifestations played as big a role in the ethics of the Greeks as Parmenides’ position on a single being played in their ontology (Gulley, p. 458). In fact, if Parmenides began to search for the substance of all things, that is, the constant basis of changing things, then Socrates sought to find their solid basis in the variety of changeable ethical concepts and assessments, their, so to speak, substance. Socrates saw this substance in good (agathon), in the realization of good as the goal of human aspirations.
